Teacher's Corner

Staff Sergeant Harry R. Kelch was a veteran of the United States Army who saw combat as a member of the 3rd Battalion of the 180th Regiment in the 45th Infantry Division. Born in Ohio, Kelch identified himself as having some Cherokee ancestry; he said that his grandmother was fully Cherokee, and his grandfather was half-Cherokee. The 45th Infantry Division in which he served was well-known for its significant proportion of Indigenous soldiers drawn from Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico. The 45th Division first saw combat in World War II in the invasion of Sicily, but Kelch’s first action was during the invasion of Italy and the Battle of Anzio that took place from January to May of 1944. After a successful invasion, the US and British armies stalled after taking the town of Anzio and were then surrounded for over 3 months by the German army. Kelch described the difficulties and horrors of this time, most especially the shelling from German artillery; Kelch described a situation in which the other man in his foxhole was killed instantly by a shell landing in their foxhole, while Kelch himself survived despite being thrown 30 feet. He would wonder, “Why did all these other men die, but I came back?” After breaking out of Anzio in May 1944, the 45th Division would participate in the liberation of Rome. Kelch told a story of this time when he and another soldier snuck out one night and went to Vatican City and spent 4 hours with the Pope before sneaking back into their quarters. Later, in April 1945, the 45th Division liberated the Dachau concentration camp near Munich, Germany. Kelch and his 180th Regiment were not the first American soldiers in the camp but arrived very shortly afterwards; he remembered that Dachau “was the most horrible sights you could ever see.” After the war Kelch worked for 31 years for General Motors before retiring in 1978 at the age of 55. He passed away in 2014 in Cincinnati, Ohio, at the age of 91.

Gerald “Jerry” Duane Ketcher, a Cherokee, was born in Miami, Oklahoma, on June 1, 1931. As a teen he filled many roles at a golf course as a master caddy–caddying, of course, but also setting pins, washing dishes, and cleaning pool tables. While at his job cleaning the pool tables, he would hear tales from veterans who served during WWII and at 16 he forged his mother’s name to join the National Guard. This experience steered him away from joining the Army since “we had to march everywhere, and I don’t like marching.” He attended 10th grade at the Haskell Institute boarding school for Native Americans because he wanted to get out of Miami. When he was 17, his father died, which only reinforced his desire to leave Miami, and so in 1950 he joined the Navy where he trained for seamanship. Out of boot command, his first ship was the USS Winston which was then stationed in the Charlestown, Massachusetts, shipyard. However, while serving on the Winston, the Korean War broke out, and he was quickly transferred to the USS Colonial, which then sailed for Korea (via the Panama Canal and then San Diego) within two days. While serving on the Colonial, he participated in several important assignments during the war. The first objective for the Colonial was to land U.S. Marines at Inchon in September 1950; these soldiers were part of the second wave of the important amphibious invasion. He recalled that the invasion did not meet much resistance, in part because the USS Missouri and US destroyers had pounded the landing zone with heavy artillery beforehand. Subsequently, in October 1950 the Colonial landed Marines again, but this time at Wonsan. Finally, Ketchner and the Colonial were involved in the evacuation of U.S. soldiers from Hungnam, Korea, on Christmas Day 1950–in an operation remembered as “The Miracle of Christmas.” Ketchner particularly remembered the poor condition of these evacuated troops with their ragged clothing and frostbitten extremities and wondered, “Why weren’t they supplied better.” For the remainder of his sea duty during the war, the Colonial would shuttle back and forth to Kobe, Japan, bringing supplies to the military forces and sometimes bringing prisoners of war to Japan. After two years of sea duty, Ketchner was reassigned to shore duty in Washington, D.C. After a stop to get married in Oklahoma, he reported for duty at the Potomac River Naval Command where he served as a teletypist for naval communications. He would eventually be discharged from the Navy in 1956. He did not want to re-enlist because he knew he would have to serve sea duty again, so he returned back to Miami, Oklahoma. After a short time, he used a connection with another recently discharged Navy veteran to get a job with BF Goodrich in Miami, which became his lifelong career. He passed away in Grove, Oklahoma, on December 22, 2015, at the age of 84.

Gerald “Jerry” Duane Ketcher, a Cherokee, was born in Miami, Oklahoma, on June 1, 1931. As a teen he filled many roles at a golf course as a master caddy–caddying, of course, but also setting pins, washing dishes, and cleaning pool tables. While at his job cleaning the pool tables, he would hear tales from veterans who served during WWII and at 16 he forged his mother’s name to join the National Guard. This experience steered him away from joining the Army since “we had to march everywhere, and I don’t like marching.” He attended 10th grade at the Haskell Institute boarding school for Native Americans because he wanted to get out of Miami. When he was 17, his father died, which only reinforced his desire to leave Miami, and so in 1950 he joined the Navy where he trained for seamanship. Out of boot command, his first ship was the USS Winston which was then stationed in the Charlestown, Massachusetts, shipyard. However, while serving on the Winston, the Korean War broke out, and he was quickly transferred to the USS Colonial, which then sailed for Korea (via the Panama Canal and then San Diego) within two days. While serving on the Colonial, he participated in several important assignments during the war. The first objective for the Colonial was to land U.S. Marines at Inchon in September 1950; these soldiers were part of the second wave of the important amphibious invasion. He recalled that the invasion did not meet much resistance, in part because the USS Missouri and US destroyers had pounded the landing zone with heavy artillery beforehand. Subsequently, in October 1950 the Colonial landed Marines again, but this time at Wonsan. Finally, Ketchner and the Colonial were involved in the evacuation of U.S. soldiers from Hungnam, Korea, on Christmas Day 1950–in an operation remembered as “The Miracle of Christmas.” Ketchner particularly remembered the poor condition of these evacuated troops with their ragged clothing and frostbitten extremities and wondered, “Why weren’t they supplied better.” For the remainder of his sea duty during the war, the Colonial would shuttle back and forth to Kobe, Japan, bringing supplies to the military forces and sometimes bringing prisoners of war to Japan. After two years of sea duty, Ketchner was reassigned to shore duty in Washington, D.C. After a stop to get married in Oklahoma, he reported for duty at the Potomac River Naval Command where he served as a teletypist for naval communications. He would eventually be discharged from the Navy in 1956. He did not want to re-enlist because he knew he would have to serve sea duty again, so he returned back to Miami, Oklahoma. After a short time, he used a connection with another recently discharged Navy veteran to get a job with BF Goodrich in Miami, which became his lifelong career. He passed away in Grove, Oklahoma, on December 22, 2015, at the age of 84.

“I just lived a good, clean life, Helen and I. We consider our life really, really good. We've had a lot of fun.” said Joe, at the age of 99. Mr. Joe T. Thornton was born in his home in the town of Stilwell, Oklahoma in 1916. His parents were farmers, and he was the second born of 8 children. He is a member of the Cherokee Nation. His great-grandfather traveled to Oklahoma on the Trail of Tears from Tennessee to the town of Wauhillau, Oklahoma in the 1830s. He went to school through the 8th grade at the Adair County grade school. Then he attended Seneca Indian School in Wyandotte, Oklahoma for 9th grade and completed high school at Chilocco Indian School in Ponca City and graduated in 1934. At Chilocco he learned the dairy farming trade, learned how to box, started to make bows and arrows and competed in archery. He joined the army after graduating from high school and was sent to Fort Sill in field artillery. He also became a trained radio technician during his service there. When World War II began, he was drafted as a radio technician and stationed outside of the Pentagon in Alexandria, Virginia, where he helped to transmit messages in morse code to the U.S. Army overseas. After World War II ended, Mr. Thornton went home to Stilwell and ran a radio and tv store with a business partner. During this time, he started to practice archery again, and began to teach archery to a woman named Helen, who would become his wife. During this time, he also started an archery business where he made bows and arrows. He competed in archery tournaments around Oklahoma and won the Oklahoma State Archery Championship in 1960 and the World Championship in Oslo, Norway in 1961 setting three world records in archery. He went on to become the British International Trials Champion in 1962, the silver medalist in the 1963 and 1965 World Championships, the British International Trials Champion again in 1967, and the USA Team Gold World Champion in 1971. Starting in 1969, Joe Thornton served on the National Archery Association Board of Governors. As a member of this board, he helped to get the sport of archery into the Olympics, a goal they were able to meet for the 1972 Olympics in Montreal, Canada. Mr. Thornton is a member of the American Indian Athletic Hall of Fame, the Oklahoma State Archery Association Hall of Fame, the Chilocco Indian School Hall of Fame, and the Cherokee Nation Honor Society.

“I just lived a good, clean life, Helen and I. We consider our life really, really good. We've had a lot of fun.” said Joe, at the age of 99. Mr. Joe T. Thornton was born in his home in the town of Stilwell, Oklahoma in 1916. His parents were farmers, and he was the second born of 8 children. He is a member of the Cherokee Nation. His great-grandfather traveled to Oklahoma on the Trail of Tears from Tennessee to the town of Wauhillau, Oklahoma in the 1830s. He went to school through the 8th grade at the Adair County grade school. Then he attended Seneca Indian School in Wyandotte, Oklahoma for 9th grade and completed high school at Chilocco Indian School in Ponca City and graduated in 1934. At Chilocco he learned the dairy farming trade, learned how to box, started to make bows and arrows and competed in archery. He joined the army after graduating from high school and was sent to Fort Sill in field artillery. He also became a trained radio technician during his service there. When World War II began, he was drafted as a radio technician and stationed outside of the Pentagon in Alexandria, Virginia, where he helped to transmit messages in morse code to the U.S. Army overseas. After World War II ended, Mr. Thornton went home to Stilwell and ran a radio and tv store with a business partner. During this time, he started to practice archery again, and began to teach archery to a woman named Helen, who would become his wife. During this time, he also started an archery business where he made bows and arrows. He competed in archery tournaments around Oklahoma and won the Oklahoma State Archery Championship in 1960 and the World Championship in Oslo, Norway in 1961 setting three world records in archery. He went on to become the British International Trials Champion in 1962, the silver medalist in the 1963 and 1965 World Championships, the British International Trials Champion again in 1967, and the USA Team Gold World Champion in 1971. Starting in 1969, Joe Thornton served on the National Archery Association Board of Governors. As a member of this board, he helped to get the sport of archery into the Olympics, a goal they were able to meet for the 1972 Olympics in Montreal, Canada. Mr. Thornton is a member of the American Indian Athletic Hall of Fame, the Oklahoma State Archery Association Hall of Fame, the Chilocco Indian School Hall of Fame, and the Cherokee Nation Honor Society.

Lieutenant Edith Rene Porter-Stewart, a Protestant Chaplain, served in both the Marines and the Navy. When Chaplain Porter-Stewart’s was growing up, her mother and father directed plays and she has written, directed, and starred in plays and written poetry her whole life. After receiving her bachelor's and master’s degrees in speech therapy, she worked as a speech therapist, and also toured with a professional theater company in the U.S. and Canada.

After performing for military bases, she was led to follow in her father’s footsteps who had served in the Navy during World War II. She attended seminary and went to Chaplain school in Newport, Rhode Island. Her first duty was with the Marines, where she was the first operational woman in the 2nd Marine Airwing working with the headquarters squadron, in Cherry Point, NC. This was during Operation Desert Storm and Desert Shield, when women were not yet being deployed, so she remained in the U.S. covering 27 supply squadrons in North and South Carolina. Her work included developing a program for key wives (spouses of deployed soldiers) and developing a television program called “Sense of Value,” covering topics relevant to military families such as being reunited with returning soldiers. She also supported soldiers who were in legal trouble, and soldiers who had returned from combat overseas. She established an airport ministry where she offered worship services and prayer to troops who were being deployed or returning home. Her husband, Edwin Porter-Stewart was a great support to her during her service.

Her next duty was aboard the U.S.S. Mount Hood, an ammunition ship out of Alameda, CA. Here, she produced an onboard newspaper and a television program called “Not Necessarily the News.” This program broadcast information about what to expect from the culture of the different ports that the ship traveled to. Next, she worked in Naval Station Alameda and was the last Protestant Chaplain there before the base closed. Later at the Naval Hospital, she was in charge of the mental health ministry, was part of the Martin Luther King Gospel Choir, and was the assistant director for the Chaplains Religious Enrichment Development Operation (CREDO).

Chaplain Porter-Stewart values what a colleague of hers called “million-dollar checks.'' These are the fond memories that she considers priceless gifts and lessons in life. The advice she would give to others is to “stay true to yourself, be who you are, stay fit, be up to being a big sister to all you encounter and love what you do.” As a female, Chaplain Porter-Stewart was a pioneer, and faced discrimination based on both her religion and her gender. However, in the end, she feels that the support that she felt far outweighed the difficulties that she felt from the people she worked with. As of 2022, Chaplain Porter-Stewart lives in Spearfish, South Dakota and is 70 years old.

Lieutenant Edith Rene Porter-Stewart, a Protestant Chaplain, served in both the Marines and the Navy. When Chaplain Porter-Stewart’s was growing up, her mother and father directed plays and she has written, directed, and starred in plays and written poetry her whole life. After receiving her bachelor's and master’s degrees in speech therapy, she worked as a speech therapist, and also toured with a professional theater company in the U.S. and Canada.

After performing for military bases, she was led to follow in her father’s footsteps who had served in the Navy during World War II. She attended seminary and went to Chaplain school in Newport, Rhode Island. Her first duty was with the Marines, where she was the first operational woman in the 2nd Marine Airwing working with the headquarters squadron, in Cherry Point, NC. This was during Operation Desert Storm and Desert Shield, when women were not yet being deployed, so she remained in the U.S. covering 27 supply squadrons in North and South Carolina. Her work included developing a program for key wives (spouses of deployed soldiers) and developing a television program called “Sense of Value,” covering topics relevant to military families such as being reunited with returning soldiers. She also supported soldiers who were in legal trouble, and soldiers who had returned from combat overseas. She established an airport ministry where she offered worship services and prayer to troops who were being deployed or returning home. Her husband, Edwin Porter-Stewart was a great support to her during her service.

Her next duty was aboard the U.S.S. Mount Hood, an ammunition ship out of Alameda, CA. Here, she produced an onboard newspaper and a television program called “Not Necessarily the News.” This program broadcast information about what to expect from the culture of the different ports that the ship traveled to. Next, she worked in Naval Station Alameda and was the last Protestant Chaplain there before the base closed. Later at the Naval Hospital, she was in charge of the mental health ministry, was part of the Martin Luther King Gospel Choir, and was the assistant director for the Chaplains Religious Enrichment Development Operation (CREDO).

Chaplain Porter-Stewart values what a colleague of hers called “million-dollar checks.'' These are the fond memories that she considers priceless gifts and lessons in life. The advice she would give to others is to “stay true to yourself, be who you are, stay fit, be up to being a big sister to all you encounter and love what you do.” As a female, Chaplain Porter-Stewart was a pioneer, and faced discrimination based on both her religion and her gender. However, in the end, she feels that the support that she felt far outweighed the difficulties that she felt from the people she worked with. As of 2022, Chaplain Porter-Stewart lives in Spearfish, South Dakota and is 70 years old.

Chief Three Bears, Donald Fisher was born on May 27, 1933, in Providence, Rhode Island. He is the youngest of seven siblings. His grandfather is Cherokee and shortened their name from Kingfisher to Fisher. Fisher’s parents were both Native American, his father is Wampanoag, and his mother is from a small tribe from New Jersey. Fisher grew up in Providence and was working as a mechanic when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1950. His three older brothers were also drafted into the U.S. Army. Fisher was not exempt from being drafted because the law was created after he was drafted. Fisher was not excited about being drafted because he was always being promoted in his job and was managing thirteen people. After being drafted, Fisher attended basic training at Fort Dix. Out of two-hundred soldiers, only four men were sent to military police school. He then went to Fort Niagara and trained for six months. After his training as a military police officer, he was sent to Korea, where he served in the Korean War from 1950-1953. His main responsibility during the Korean War was to guard and protect a U.S. General while in the combat zone. When not guarding the General, he performed military police duties. Fisher stated, “war is war”, when you serve in a war you experience casualties no matter if you are on the frontlines or experiencing combat from a ½ mile away. After Korea, Fisher transferred to Germany. He enjoyed playing the guitar and put together a band, that’s where he befriended Elvis Presley. Fisher shared about the discrimination he endured while serving in the U.S. Army for 17 years. During his time going between Korea and Japan, Fisher married a Japanese woman in Japan. After getting married he noticed he was treated differently, during morning inspections he would be reprimanded for no reason. He was passed up for promotions his entire military career, his highest rank was a Specialist Four. Fisher finally could not stand the disrespect and was going to get out of the U.S. Army, but he was court martialed over $500 and given an honorable discharge.

After returning home, Fisher worked as a foreman for two years but then suffered a stroke which left him permanently disabled. He then began to learn Algonquin languages of his Wampanoag people. Chief Three Bears studied under the friendship and mentorship of Spotted Eagle, the Supreme Medicine Man of the Wampanoag Nation. He later became one of the founders of and taught the Nipmuc dialect at the newly established Algonquin School. Fisher established the Dighton Oak Council, was 1st Chief, language teacher for the Eastern Medicine Singers, and Chief of the Healing Spiritual Clan of Providence Veterans Affairs (VA). Chief Three Bears received acknowledgement by the United States Congress for Life’s American Indian Achievement Award. In 2006, the Seaconke Wampanoag Tribe, at their Naming Ceremony presented him with the prestigious honor, “The Pipe of Peace. The Seaconke Wampanoag Cultural Committee recognized Fisher for his outstanding and significant contributions to the sustainability of the cultural heritage. Donald Fisher displayed his resiliency by never giving up when faced with adversity. Fisher says, “always stand up for what’s right, speak truth even if it hurts”.

Chief Three Bears, Donald Fisher was born on May 27, 1933, in Providence, Rhode Island. He is the youngest of seven siblings. His grandfather is Cherokee and shortened their name from Kingfisher to Fisher. Fisher’s parents were both Native American, his father is Wampanoag, and his mother is from a small tribe from New Jersey. Fisher grew up in Providence and was working as a mechanic when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in 1950. His three older brothers were also drafted into the U.S. Army. Fisher was not exempt from being drafted because the law was created after he was drafted. Fisher was not excited about being drafted because he was always being promoted in his job and was managing thirteen people. After being drafted, Fisher attended basic training at Fort Dix. Out of two-hundred soldiers, only four men were sent to military police school. He then went to Fort Niagara and trained for six months. After his training as a military police officer, he was sent to Korea, where he served in the Korean War from 1950-1953. His main responsibility during the Korean War was to guard and protect a U.S. General while in the combat zone. When not guarding the General, he performed military police duties. Fisher stated, “war is war”, when you serve in a war you experience casualties no matter if you are on the frontlines or experiencing combat from a ½ mile away. After Korea, Fisher transferred to Germany. He enjoyed playing the guitar and put together a band, that’s where he befriended Elvis Presley. Fisher shared about the discrimination he endured while serving in the U.S. Army for 17 years. During his time going between Korea and Japan, Fisher married a Japanese woman in Japan. After getting married he noticed he was treated differently, during morning inspections he would be reprimanded for no reason. He was passed up for promotions his entire military career, his highest rank was a Specialist Four. Fisher finally could not stand the disrespect and was going to get out of the U.S. Army, but he was court martialed over $500 and given an honorable discharge.

After returning home, Fisher worked as a foreman for two years but then suffered a stroke which left him permanently disabled. He then began to learn Algonquin languages of his Wampanoag people. Chief Three Bears studied under the friendship and mentorship of Spotted Eagle, the Supreme Medicine Man of the Wampanoag Nation. He later became one of the founders of and taught the Nipmuc dialect at the newly established Algonquin School. Fisher established the Dighton Oak Council, was 1st Chief, language teacher for the Eastern Medicine Singers, and Chief of the Healing Spiritual Clan of Providence Veterans Affairs (VA). Chief Three Bears received acknowledgement by the United States Congress for Life’s American Indian Achievement Award. In 2006, the Seaconke Wampanoag Tribe, at their Naming Ceremony presented him with the prestigious honor, “The Pipe of Peace. The Seaconke Wampanoag Cultural Committee recognized Fisher for his outstanding and significant contributions to the sustainability of the cultural heritage. Donald Fisher displayed his resiliency by never giving up when faced with adversity. Fisher says, “always stand up for what’s right, speak truth even if it hurts”.

Sibby Labeau (Eagle Bear) was born on an Indian reservation in the northern part of South Dakota in 1923, the middle son of 12 children. He was taken by the elders when he was very young and kept away from as much white contact as possible so he could be trained in language, dialect and traditional survival methods.  He learned dancing and was tasked with passing this on to the younger children. There is no written language in his tribe and information had been handed down in this way for centuries. He was trained to be a “rememberer”. When he was 12, he entered white schools because he wanted to learn English and the tribe leaders decided that it was time for him to do that.  He started in first grade in the Catholic school in South Dakota and in 5 years, he finished all 9 grade levels. He then went to a government school but found it unbearable and transferred to school in Georgia.

After school, he found himself in Lincoln, Nebraska where he signed up for the war in January of 1942 specifically with the Navy. He was wounded in the war but returned after three weeks of recuperation. He was the only person in his division to make it out alive and he wanted to return to help the war effort. He was a frogman (now SEALS) and worked underwater demolition. After four weeks of boot camp, he was assigned to Operation Torch in Africa. They were to cut cables loose across a river to gain access to the river. After that success, he was moved to San Diego where they set up an amphibious base on Coronado Island. From there, he went to the South Pacific and mourns the 140,000 lives lost over the island battles. He was part of Operation Overlord in Normandy when the U.S. invaded France. As part of the code talking training, he was trained in interrogation techniques and what to do if he was captured. He received the Purple Heart and a Presidential Commendation. After the atomic bomb was dropped and the war was over, he went to the Solomon Islands for a week and then transferred to Hawaii, San Fransisco and to their main base in San Diego. He continued to serve until June 1, 1946. There were no jobs on the reservation, so he went back to Georgia and worked on the shrimp boats.

After military service, he worked as a drilling superintendent and production superintendent in the oil fields for 23 years. He earned a mechanical engineering degree and worked for the U.S. Navy as a civilian helping to test experimental watercraft.  He married a woman who didn’t want to go to San Diego, so they stayed in Wyoming.  They were married for 51 years and had 5 kids before she died from Alzheimer's disease. He lost one son in the Vietnam War. He remarried and is working with the youth at the Indian Reservation to try to make the world a place where there is no hate or discontent and to associate with their white brothers.

Sibby Labeau (Eagle Bear) was born on an Indian reservation in the northern part of South Dakota in 1923, the middle son of 12 children. He was taken by the elders when he was very young and kept away from as much white contact as possible so he could be trained in language, dialect and traditional survival methods.  He learned dancing and was tasked with passing this on to the younger children. There is no written language in his tribe and information had been handed down in this way for centuries. He was trained to be a “rememberer”. When he was 12, he entered white schools because he wanted to learn English and the tribe leaders decided that it was time for him to do that.  He started in first grade in the Catholic school in South Dakota and in 5 years, he finished all 9 grade levels. He then went to a government school but found it unbearable and transferred to school in Georgia.

After school, he found himself in Lincoln, Nebraska where he signed up for the war in January of 1942 specifically with the Navy. He was wounded in the war but returned after three weeks of recuperation. He was the only person in his division to make it out alive and he wanted to return to help the war effort. He was a frogman (now SEALS) and worked underwater demolition. After four weeks of boot camp, he was assigned to Operation Torch in Africa. They were to cut cables loose across a river to gain access to the river. After that success, he was moved to San Diego where they set up an amphibious base on Coronado Island. From there, he went to the South Pacific and mourns the 140,000 lives lost over the island battles. He was part of Operation Overlord in Normandy when the U.S. invaded France. As part of the code talking training, he was trained in interrogation techniques and what to do if he was captured. He received the Purple Heart and a Presidential Commendation. After the atomic bomb was dropped and the war was over, he went to the Solomon Islands for a week and then transferred to Hawaii, San Fransisco and to their main base in San Diego. He continued to serve until June 1, 1946. There were no jobs on the reservation, so he went back to Georgia and worked on the shrimp boats.

After military service, he worked as a drilling superintendent and production superintendent in the oil fields for 23 years. He earned a mechanical engineering degree and worked for the U.S. Navy as a civilian helping to test experimental watercraft.  He married a woman who didn’t want to go to San Diego, so they stayed in Wyoming.  They were married for 51 years and had 5 kids before she died from Alzheimer's disease. He lost one son in the Vietnam War. He remarried and is working with the youth at the Indian Reservation to try to make the world a place where there is no hate or discontent and to associate with their white brothers.

Michael Joseph Bugaj (pronounced “boo-gai”) was born January 20, 1954, in Detroit, Michigan. His father was a U.S. Navy veteran and later worked for 47 years for Chrysler, the American car manufacturer. His mother was a Native American who worked in the family home.

Bugaj enlisted in the U.S. Air Force in 1972 because he knew that he might be drafted into the U.S. Army, and he did not want to get sent into combat in Vietnam as an infantryman. After completing his basic training at Lackland Air Force Base (AFB) in Texas, he was stationed at McConnell AFB in Wichita, Kansas from 1972 to 1977. During his time there he was assigned to the carpentry shop on the base, in part because he had taken some carpentry classes in high school but also because he took correspondence courses during the evenings while at McConnell. While at McConnell he also married and had his first child.

In 1977 Bugaj was transferred to Spangdahlem AFB in Germany; he would be stationed there until 1981. At Spangdahlem again worked carpentry but also added masonry to his responsibilities, but because the base was so close to East Germany, he was additionally required to learn Rapid Runway Repair (referred to as “triple R”). After learning the necessary skills, he quickly was placed in the top squadron because of his efficiency in carrying out this duty. In 1981 Bugaj was transferred back to the states and was stationed until 1989 at Beale AFB near Sacramento, California. At Beale he was moved from the carpentry shop to planning where he oversaw many of the structural projects on base, which required planning projects, surveying sites, managing permits, and inspecting work and damage, among other responsibilities. While not being excited about the move out of the carpentry shop at first, he soon found that he liked the supervisory role he found himself in. While at Beale he also took over the triple-R training for the airmen assigned to that duty.

In 1989 Bugaj went back to Germany one more time, this time assigned to Zweibrücken AFB for 2 years until 1991. Now a tech sergeant, he unfortunately found that someone was already assigned the role that he filled at Beale, so he eventually was assigned as a construction inspector. After a strong storm hit the base and damaged the roofs of 70 or so buildings, he found himself very busy overseeing the roofing contracts to repair each one; he related that the Germans there told him that he was the best roofing inspector that they’d worked with at Zweibrücken. After a promotion to Master Sergeant, he was assigned to Travis AFB in the Bay Area of California where he finished his Air Force career in Financial Management, earning his first Air Force Achievement Medal.

He retired from the Air Force in 1995, moved back to Michigan, and eventually became active both in the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians association and also the Native American Veterans Association of Southeast Michigan, where he served as Vice President.

Michael Joseph Bugaj (pronounced “boo-gai”) was born January 20, 1954, in Detroit, Michigan. His father was a U.S. Navy veteran and later worked for 47 years for Chrysler, the American car manufacturer. His mother was a Native American who worked in the family home.

Bugaj enlisted in the U.S. Air Force in 1972 because he knew that he might be drafted into the U.S. Army, and he did not want to get sent into combat in Vietnam as an infantryman. After completing his basic training at Lackland Air Force Base (AFB) in Texas, he was stationed at McConnell AFB in Wichita, Kansas from 1972 to 1977. During his time there he was assigned to the carpentry shop on the base, in part because he had taken some carpentry classes in high school but also because he took correspondence courses during the evenings while at McConnell. While at McConnell he also married and had his first child.

In 1977 Bugaj was transferred to Spangdahlem AFB in Germany; he would be stationed there until 1981. At Spangdahlem again worked carpentry but also added masonry to his responsibilities, but because the base was so close to East Germany, he was additionally required to learn Rapid Runway Repair (referred to as “triple R”). After learning the necessary skills, he quickly was placed in the top squadron because of his efficiency in carrying out this duty. In 1981 Bugaj was transferred back to the states and was stationed until 1989 at Beale AFB near Sacramento, California. At Beale he was moved from the carpentry shop to planning where he oversaw many of the structural projects on base, which required planning projects, surveying sites, managing permits, and inspecting work and damage, among other responsibilities. While not being excited about the move out of the carpentry shop at first, he soon found that he liked the supervisory role he found himself in. While at Beale he also took over the triple-R training for the airmen assigned to that duty.

In 1989 Bugaj went back to Germany one more time, this time assigned to Zweibrücken AFB for 2 years until 1991. Now a tech sergeant, he unfortunately found that someone was already assigned the role that he filled at Beale, so he eventually was assigned as a construction inspector. After a strong storm hit the base and damaged the roofs of 70 or so buildings, he found himself very busy overseeing the roofing contracts to repair each one; he related that the Germans there told him that he was the best roofing inspector that they’d worked with at Zweibrücken. After a promotion to Master Sergeant, he was assigned to Travis AFB in the Bay Area of California where he finished his Air Force career in Financial Management, earning his first Air Force Achievement Medal.

He retired from the Air Force in 1995, moved back to Michigan, and eventually became active both in the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians association and also the Native American Veterans Association of Southeast Michigan, where he served as Vice President.

Woodrow Wilson Keeble was born in 1917 in Waubay, South Dakota. As a youngster he moved to Wahpeton, North Dakota and became a member of the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate tribe. His mother died shortly thereafter and his father who was too poor to feed his family permanently enrolled Woody and his siblings in the Wahpeton Indian School.

Woody excelled in sports, especially baseball. He was being recruited by the Chicago White Sox when his Army National Guard unit was called up to serve in World War II. He served in the North Dakota 164^th Infantry Regiment. The regiment was assigned to the Pacific Theater of War. Woody fought in several battles, the most notable, Guadalcanal. He was highly decorated for his actions.

Discharged in 1946, Keeble returned to his home and worked as a teacher in the Wahpeton Indian School. He married Nettie Abigail Owen-Robertson. They had one son, Earl. Nettie died one year after he returned from the Korean War and Woody was left to raise their son alone. Keeble fell on hard times and is said to have pawned his service medals. Despite his disabilities that were an outcome of both of his experiences in WWII and Korea, he persevered. In 1967 He married Blossom Iris Crawford-Hawkins, the first Sioux woman to complete a Doctor of Education degree.

Keeble died January 28, 1982, and is buried in Sisseton, South Dakota. On May 17, 2008, his tombstone was replaced with a Medal of Honor headstone.

Lori Ann Piestewa was born on December 14, 1979, at Tuba City in northern Arizona on the Navajo Reservation. Her father is Hopi and her mother Mexican American. Tuba City is near the Hopi village of Moenkopi and many Hopis call Tuba City home. Lori’s Hopi name, given to her as a youngster, was Kocha-Hon-Mana. It means “White Bear Girl.”

Lori’s parents raised her to respect her family and heritage. In high school she was an athlete and ROTC leader but never wanted to be in the spotlight. By the time she was 22, Lori was a divorced mother of two young children. Jobs on the reservation were few and Lori wanted to be independent. The Army offered her the opportunity to financially care for her children and eventually go to college. Military service was part of her heritage. Her father was a Vietnam veteran and her grandfather a veteran of WWII. Lori joined the Army in October 2001 and left her children in her parents’ care.

When her unit was deployed to Iraq, Lori was recovering from surgery on an injured shoulder. She was not supposed to go with her unit. Living up to her Hopi name, White Bear Girl was strong willed and determined to fulfill her obligation to her country. She convinced her superiors that she had recovered and was fit to serve. Her parents had little notice but went to great lengths drive from Arizona to Fort Bliss, Texas to see her off. They were very glad they made that effort.

Not long after her deployment, Lori was driving a heavy, slow-moving Humvee in a supply convoy. The slower vehicles became separated from the faster, lighter ones. On March 23, 2003, the slower moving convoy took a wrong turn. Lori’s roommate, Pfc Jessica Lynch, was ahead driving a truck with a trailer. When Jessica’s vehicle broke down, Lori stopped and picked her up. The wrong turn led the convoy into hostile territory and the town of Nasiriyah. Ambushed and under fire, a grenade hit Lori’s Humvee and it crashed. Lori, Jessica, and a third soldier were seriously injured and three others in the Humvee were killed. The three injured were captured and taken to a hospital. 

Lori died of her injuries, but Jessica survived and returned to the States amidst rumors and propaganda on the part of the US government. Jessica was falsely portrayed as a “female Rambo,” killing many Iraqi soldiers. In fact, she never fired her weapon. Jessica later told the real story and called Lori the hero.

Lori was posthumously promoted from Private First Class to Specialist and awarded the Purple Heart and the Prisoner of War Medal. She was the first Native American woman killed in combat and the first American woman killed in the Iraq War. Among other honors, a local mountain peak was renamed after her and in 2018, Lori was one of the first twelve Native American veterans inducted into the National Native American Hall of Fame. 

Lori Ann Piestewa was born on December 14, 1979, at Tuba City in northern Arizona on the Navajo Reservation. Her father is Hopi and her mother Mexican American. Tuba City is near the Hopi village of Moenkopi and many Hopis call Tuba City home. Lori’s Hopi name, given to her as a youngster, was Kocha-Hon-Mana. It means “White Bear Girl.”

Lori’s parents raised her to respect her family and heritage. In high school she was an athlete and ROTC leader but never wanted to be in the spotlight. By the time she was 22, Lori was a divorced mother of two young children. Jobs on the reservation were few and Lori wanted to be independent. The Army offered her the opportunity to financially care for her children and eventually go to college. Military service was part of her heritage. Her father was a Vietnam veteran and her grandfather a veteran of WWII. Lori joined the Army in October 2001 and left her children in her parents’ care.

When her unit was deployed to Iraq, Lori was recovering from surgery on an injured shoulder. She was not supposed to go with her unit. Living up to her Hopi name, White Bear Girl was strong willed and determined to fulfill her obligation to her country. She convinced her superiors that she had recovered and was fit to serve. Her parents had little notice but went to great lengths drive from Arizona to Fort Bliss, Texas to see her off. They were very glad they made that effort.

Not long after her deployment, Lori was driving a heavy, slow-moving Humvee in a supply convoy. The slower vehicles became separated from the faster, lighter ones. On March 23, 2003, the slower moving convoy took a wrong turn. Lori’s roommate, Pfc Jessica Lynch, was ahead driving a truck with a trailer. When Jessica’s vehicle broke down, Lori stopped and picked her up. The wrong turn led the convoy into hostile territory and the town of Nasiriyah. Ambushed and under fire, a grenade hit Lori’s Humvee and it crashed. Lori, Jessica, and a third soldier were seriously injured and three others in the Humvee were killed. The three injured were captured and taken to a hospital. 

Lori died of her injuries, but Jessica survived and returned to the States amidst rumors and propaganda on the part of the US government. Jessica was falsely portrayed as a “female Rambo,” killing many Iraqi soldiers. In fact, she never fired her weapon. Jessica later told the real story and called Lori the hero.

Lori was posthumously promoted from Private First Class to Specialist and awarded the Purple Heart and the Prisoner of War Medal. She was the first Native American woman killed in combat and the first American woman killed in the Iraq War. Among other honors, a local mountain peak was renamed after her and in 2018, Lori was one of the first twelve Native American veterans inducted into the National Native American Hall of Fame. 

Glenn Moore was born on August 23, 1919, on the Klamath River in Northern California. He was raised in a Yurok settlement along the Klamath River and learned the ways of his ancestors: fishing, canoeing, and caring for the land. Glenn attended the Sherman Indian Boarding School in Riverside, California where he struggled as a student and struggled to learn the English language. He was an outstanding athlete who found success as a wrestler, in particular, who was a championship contender at the World Fair.

Glenn’s decision to join the Army Air Corp in 1941 was influenced by his auto shop teacher, who was a veteran of World War I, and encouraged Glenn to enlist rather than being drafted to avoid being an infantryman. He also taught Glenn about the aircraft they used in World War I, which sparked Glenn’s interest. Glenn was sent to Lowry Field near Denver, Colorado for armaments training, where his determination to avoid being sent to the infantry helped him excel as a student and score near the top of class, earning him a position as an armaments instructor for the Army Air Corp. Due to his excellence as a student, Glenn spent the next two years teaching new recruits in the armament schools at Lowry Field and Buckley Field on how to effectively use the guns and bombing equipment on various fighters and bombers, including the P38. He spent the last two years of his military service as detached service, meaning he was assigned to various units in order to train the pilots on the new upgrades being made to the P38s. During his detached service, Glenn was assigned to units in England, France (Omaha Beach), and the South Pacific.

Glenn was discharged from the Army Air Corp in 1945 and returned home to Northern California. He was married and raised a family. His work ethic and determination helped him to run a successful logging operation for 35 years, as well as raising cattle and registered Appaloosa horses. Glenn was awarded the Businessman of the Year from the United Indian Development Association in 1986.

Glenn’s determination and dedication to preserving the cultural heritage of his people earned him an honored place among the Yurok Tribe. His understanding of his native language helped him guide the work to build a language curriculum for teaching younger generations the Yurok language. He served on a number of local and national committees that worked to further the cause of Native Americans across the United States. After many years of faithful service to his country and his community, Glenn Moore died on December 9, 2008.

Glenn Moore was born on August 23, 1919, on the Klamath River in Northern California. He was raised in a Yurok settlement along the Klamath River and learned the ways of his ancestors: fishing, canoeing, and caring for the land. Glenn attended the Sherman Indian Boarding School in Riverside, California where he struggled as a student and struggled to learn the English language. He was an outstanding athlete who found success as a wrestler, in particular, who was a championship contender at the World Fair.

Glenn’s decision to join the Army Air Corp in 1941 was influenced by his auto shop teacher, who was a veteran of World War I, and encouraged Glenn to enlist rather than being drafted to avoid being an infantryman. He also taught Glenn about the aircraft they used in World War I, which sparked Glenn’s interest. Glenn was sent to Lowry Field near Denver, Colorado for armaments training, where his determination to avoid being sent to the infantry helped him excel as a student and score near the top of class, earning him a position as an armaments instructor for the Army Air Corp. Due to his excellence as a student, Glenn spent the next two years teaching new recruits in the armament schools at Lowry Field and Buckley Field on how to effectively use the guns and bombing equipment on various fighters and bombers, including the P38. He spent the last two years of his military service as detached service, meaning he was assigned to various units in order to train the pilots on the new upgrades being made to the P38s. During his detached service, Glenn was assigned to units in England, France (Omaha Beach), and the South Pacific.

Glenn was discharged from the Army Air Corp in 1945 and returned home to Northern California. He was married and raised a family. His work ethic and determination helped him to run a successful logging operation for 35 years, as well as raising cattle and registered Appaloosa horses. Glenn was awarded the Businessman of the Year from the United Indian Development Association in 1986.

Glenn’s determination and dedication to preserving the cultural heritage of his people earned him an honored place among the Yurok Tribe. His understanding of his native language helped him guide the work to build a language curriculum for teaching younger generations the Yurok language. He served on a number of local and national committees that worked to further the cause of Native Americans across the United States. After many years of faithful service to his country and his community, Glenn Moore died on December 9, 2008.

Born in 1944, this Seminole Indian enlisted in the army at age 18 after facing limited employment prospects in his home state of Oklahoma. Despite his mother’s displeasure at his decision, a strong sense of patriotism drove him to follow his father and grandfather’s footsteps.

He was assigned to West Berlin during the Cold War and the erection of the Berlin Wall. His position as a radio operator gave him access to places around the world – Vietnam and Australia – to name a few. The connection to Vietnam gave him the urge to want to serve there. His request for reassignment, however, was denied and he spent the duration of his service 1962 to 1965 in Germany.

His discharge from the army was a bit rocky. He encountered incidences of discrimination and disparagement of his heritage which resulted in a court martial. The experience taught him to express himself in better ways as he stood up for himself.

In the years since his service (he is 73 at the time of the interview) he applied many of the lessons he learned during his military service to his life. He learned to be forceful without being harsh. He understood his own resiliency in light of the resilience shown by his native forebearers.

Linda Woods is an advocate and example of service; she discusses the idea that Native Americans feel responsibility to this land which contributes to their high participation in the military. She says they feel that they should go to great lengths to protect it. Natives are honored at every Powwow and considered warriors, even the women. Linda has a difficult childhood and home experience growing up.  She didn’t want to stay in her town and couldn’t afford college.  A friend’s mother served in WWII, and she admired her. She was inspired by this friend and her dad who had served in WWII, so she decided to enlist. The Air Force appealed to her because she wanted to fly. Linda enlisted and was bussed from Traverse City to Detroit where she was sworn in and inducted into the Air Force. She did her basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. They didn’t send many women overseas in the Vietnam War and she served stateside. She was sent to Barksdale Air Force Base in Louisiana where the elite US Air Force teams were housed. She worked as a switchboard operator with the other members of her squadron. In the 1960’s when the Civil Rights Act was passed, she was working in the south where the bathrooms and water fountains were labeled “white” and “colored”. She would ask where she should go because she wasn’t either. The blatant racism was very difficult for her to see and experience. Linda’s most memorable experience happened when she heard Kennedy was shot. She came into the barracks where they announced it over the loudspeakers and the base went into red alert. As part of a SAC base, their top priority was to be ready for anything. It was a scary time. Women were not allowed to serve in combat during her service. She did complete basic training but could not be in a combat position. Linda married a fellow soldier and moved to Sacramento, then Oakland and got a job in San Francisco. She worked for Western Union and used her Air Force switchboard training to get that job. She was also able to get her first house using GI benefits. Linda used the GI Bill to pay for her schooling. She has a Master’s Degree in social work and works as a Social Worker and Director of Substance Abuse. She joined the American Legion and serves as secretary. She was inducted into the Michigan Women’s Hall of Fame and works to memorialize and focus on the strengths that veterans bring to the country and her community. She is a charter member listed in the Women in the Military Memorial in Washington DC in the Arlington Cemetery.

Linda Woods is an advocate and example of service; she discusses the idea that Native Americans feel responsibility to this land which contributes to their high participation in the military. She says they feel that they should go to great lengths to protect it. Natives are honored at every Powwow and considered warriors, even the women. Linda has a difficult childhood and home experience growing up.  She didn’t want to stay in her town and couldn’t afford college.  A friend’s mother served in WWII, and she admired her. She was inspired by this friend and her dad who had served in WWII, so she decided to enlist. The Air Force appealed to her because she wanted to fly. Linda enlisted and was bussed from Traverse City to Detroit where she was sworn in and inducted into the Air Force. She did her basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. They didn’t send many women overseas in the Vietnam War and she served stateside. She was sent to Barksdale Air Force Base in Louisiana where the elite US Air Force teams were housed. She worked as a switchboard operator with the other members of her squadron. In the 1960’s when the Civil Rights Act was passed, she was working in the south where the bathrooms and water fountains were labeled “white” and “colored”. She would ask where she should go because she wasn’t either. The blatant racism was very difficult for her to see and experience. Linda’s most memorable experience happened when she heard Kennedy was shot. She came into the barracks where they announced it over the loudspeakers and the base went into red alert. As part of a SAC base, their top priority was to be ready for anything. It was a scary time. Women were not allowed to serve in combat during her service. She did complete basic training but could not be in a combat position. Linda married a fellow soldier and moved to Sacramento, then Oakland and got a job in San Francisco. She worked for Western Union and used her Air Force switchboard training to get that job. She was also able to get her first house using GI benefits. Linda used the GI Bill to pay for her schooling. She has a Master’s Degree in social work and works as a Social Worker and Director of Substance Abuse. She joined the American Legion and serves as secretary. She was inducted into the Michigan Women’s Hall of Fame and works to memorialize and focus on the strengths that veterans bring to the country and her community. She is a charter member listed in the Women in the Military Memorial in Washington DC in the Arlington Cemetery.

Jamie Fox, whose heritage is Nakoda, Gros Ventre, and Métis, grew up in a close-knit community on Fort Belknap Reservation in northern Montana. She remembers a wonderful childhood, playing outside in the creeks and appreciating the beauty of the landscape. Despite her pastoral surroundings, however, there was significant noise pollution from nearby Malmstrom and Ellsworth military bases. Military aircraft typically practice over reservation lands, and Jamie became fascinated with the heavy aircraft as she watched their maneuvers. B-1’s, F-16’s and KC-10’s thundering low overhead inspired Jamie to aim for a career in aviation. Jamie’s father, also an aviation enthusiast, encouraged her interest, and as in many Native American families, Jamie’s relatives carried a long and rich tradition of military service. Both her grandfathers were World War II veterans and numerous uncles and aunts served during the Korean, Vietnam, and Desert Storm eras.

Service became a logical decision, but not at first. As a 17-year-old high school senior thinking ahead to college, in 2007 Jamie applied to, and was accepted at, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. She still cherishes that acceptance letter, but realizing the expense, and unwilling to burden her parents, Jamie opted to put off college and enlist in the Air Force so she could later pay her own way.

It took many months of waiting to get the job slot she wanted. Jamie was twice deployed to the Middle East, first to Doha, Qatar in the Persian Gulf and then to Kandahar, Afghanistan with the 8th Expeditionary Air Mobility Squadron (EAMS). Jamie served in the Air Force until 2017. She was one of few women trained in heavy aircraft maintenance keeping B1 bombers and C-17 Globemaster IIIs mission ready. Confident and highly skilled, she was honored as Airman of the Month and Airman of the Quarter. As a crew chief, she held the lives of those who flew in those planes literally in her hands.

Like other Indian veterans, Jamie considers military service a high honor and the extension of the traditional warrior society into which she was born. During a visit home to Fort Belknap following her first deployment, Jamie’s community ceremoniously paid her tribute with an eagle feather, a high honor. Her mother was equally honored with a star quilt. Jamie explains that worry for a child in service makes a mother a warrior, too.

Contemporary Indian veterans like Jamie continue to serve and honor their warrior culture, but it is not only military service that is important to her. Jamie’s musically talented family has preserved their rich traditions steeped in Celtic, French, and Native American cultures. As a youngster of 10, Jamie learned to play the fiddle. With her father and siblings, her family has widely shared their cultural songs and step dances. When she enlisted, Jamie took her fiddle with her. And later, her cultural heritage and her music helped her through the difficult transition from military back to civilian life.

Today, Jamie is a highly acclaimed Métis master fiddler who shares and teaches her craft. Her military 2 service is part of who she is, and like her art, she celebrates it. “I wish that more veterans would share their stories,” she says, “and celebrate what will always be a big part of [their] life”.

Gilbert Horn, Sr. was born and raised on the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation in Montana. He volunteered for the Army National Guard at age 17 in 1940, with permission from his mother, because he had a desire to know what was beyond the boundaries of the reservation since he had only been off the reservation to travel to visit family on other reservations.

After volunteering, Gilbert was shipped from Chinook, Montana to Fort Lewis, Washington where he was stationed at Camp Murray for over a year. Here, he and his fellow recruits lived in tents while completing their training in night maneuvers, weapons care and physical fitness training, even though it was peace time. When his year in the Reserves was up, he volunteered again. This time for service with the 163rd Infantry Battalion in the hopes of going to the Philippines. Before he was able to deploy to there, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor. His ship was reassigned to Pearl Harbor after the bombing where he helped clean up on the bases while staying in the Primo Brewery in Honolulu.

Gilbert fought in many places in the Pacific Theater during World War II. He spent time on Guadalcanal, New Guinea, the Philippines, the West Indies and finally Burma. During his time in the military, Gilbert received specialized training in communications and encryption, as well as 30 days of survival training while in the South Pacific. Eventually, Gilbert volunteered, and was selected, to join the elite ”Merrill’s Marauders unit”, which was tasked with cutting communications and supplies lines for the Japanese over 800 miles through Burma and western China. Gilbert Horn, Sr. was awarded the Bronze Star, the Purple Heart and the Distinguished Unit Citation for his actions as a member of Merrill’s Marauders.

Gilbert Horn, Sr. was honorably discharged from the Army in 1945 and returned to Fort Belknap to resume his duties on his grandparents’ farm. His commitment to serving others continued as he was active in his community. He served on the Assiniboine Treaty Committee for over 60 years, managed the tribal funds, was elected as a Fort Belknap Community Council Chairperson several times and served as a council member for 19 years. As a member of the Tribal Health Board, he lobbied in Washington, D.C. for a new health clinic. His commitment to community was acknowledged when he was named chief of the Fort Belknap Assiniboine Tribe in 2014, the first time in over 125 years. Gilbert Horn, Sr. died on March 27, 2016 in Havre, Montana at the age of 92 having served his country and his community honorably for nearly a century.

Gilbert Horn, Sr. was born and raised on the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation in Montana. He volunteered for the Army National Guard at age 17 in 1940, with permission from his mother, because he had a desire to know what was beyond the boundaries of the reservation since he had only been off the reservation to travel to visit family on other reservations.

After volunteering, Gilbert was shipped from Chinook, Montana to Fort Lewis, Washington where he was stationed at Camp Murray for over a year. Here, he and his fellow recruits lived in tents while completing their training in night maneuvers, weapons care and physical fitness training, even though it was peace time. When his year in the Reserves was up, he volunteered again. This time for service with the 163rd Infantry Battalion in the hopes of going to the Philippines. Before he was able to deploy to there, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor. His ship was reassigned to Pearl Harbor after the bombing where he helped clean up on the bases while staying in the Primo Brewery in Honolulu.

Gilbert fought in many places in the Pacific Theater during World War II. He spent time on Guadalcanal, New Guinea, the Philippines, the West Indies and finally Burma. During his time in the military, Gilbert received specialized training in communications and encryption, as well as 30 days of survival training while in the South Pacific. Eventually, Gilbert volunteered, and was selected, to join the elite ”Merrill’s Marauders unit”, which was tasked with cutting communications and supplies lines for the Japanese over 800 miles through Burma and western China. Gilbert Horn, Sr. was awarded the Bronze Star, the Purple Heart and the Distinguished Unit Citation for his actions as a member of Merrill’s Marauders.

Gilbert Horn, Sr. was honorably discharged from the Army in 1945 and returned to Fort Belknap to resume his duties on his grandparents’ farm. His commitment to serving others continued as he was active in his community. He served on the Assiniboine Treaty Committee for over 60 years, managed the tribal funds, was elected as a Fort Belknap Community Council Chairperson several times and served as a council member for 19 years. As a member of the Tribal Health Board, he lobbied in Washington, D.C. for a new health clinic. His commitment to community was acknowledged when he was named chief of the Fort Belknap Assiniboine Tribe in 2014, the first time in over 125 years. Gilbert Horn, Sr. died on March 27, 2016 in Havre, Montana at the age of 92 having served his country and his community honorably for nearly a century.

Gertrude Bradley Fann was born in 1920 and raised with six siblings by her father General Washington Bradley, a non-Indian tribe member, and Julia McCoy Bradley. She grew up on the Cherokee Reservation in Birdtown, North Carolina, though she’s just 1/32 Cherokee. Her father farmed, and Fann and her siblings helped with canning and growing much of their food. There was no indoor plumbing, and light came from kerosene lamps on the reservation. Fann completed high school at the main school in Cherokee and continued to Bacone College, a Baptist-operated school for Native Americans in Muskogee Okla.

Trudy Bradley Fann was in college when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor and the United States entered World War Il. Fann recalled, "Every girl in my class decided to become a nurse.” She was in training at Knoxville General Hospital (KGH) when the Cadet Nurse Corps (CNC) formed, and she joined the Navy Nurse Corps as a way to serve her country.

In 1944, Trudy Bradley Fann, along with two of her Knoxville General Hospital classmates rode a troop train all the way across the country to Oak Knoll Navy Hospital in Oakland, California. Fann recounted that Oak Knoll “had big open wards, and there were about 8,000 patients. It was hard to see some of what these boys had been through, but they were excited that it was close to being over with. We treated more Marines than sailors because they were closer to the combat usually.”

World War II ended shortly after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and Bradley Fann was in San Francisco during the V-J Day celebrations. Shortly thereafter she got a job as a nurse at the Oak Ridge Nuclear Facility in Tennessee. Soon after, she met Ray Fann on a blind date. He had just gotten out of the Navy and they soon married. Fann recalls that her friends gave her a big wedding, something that wasn’t common on the reservation.

Fann worked at the Veterans Administration (VA) hospital in Johnson City, Tennessee, and raised 5 children. After retiring with 30 years of nursing at the VA Hospital mainly in surgical service, she worked another 10 years at the Johnson City Specialty Hospital.

After retirement, Fann spent a year in Odessa, in the Ukraine, just after the fall of communism, with Mission to the World out of Atlanta, and continued to be active with the Knoxville General Hospital alumni association. She still receives a small dividend from the Cherokee casino revenues, and votes for chief and for the tribal representative from Birdtown.

Trudy Bradley Fann celebrated her 99^th birthday in 2021. Fann has 10 grandchildren and six great-grandchildren.

Dwight W. Birdwell was born in Amarillo Texas on January 19, 1948. He was a citizen of the Cherokee Nation and grew up in the predominantly Cherokee Indian community of Bell, Oklahoma. He attended Bell Grade School and graduated from Stilwell High School in 1966 before entering the Army on May 24, 1966.

Birdwell was assigned to Troop C, the first American ground unit to respond to the attack on the Tan Son Nhut Air Base which was under attack during the Tet Offensive on January 31, 1967. Birdwell's tank commander was seriously wounded so Birdwell took command and continued firing on the attacking People’s Army of Vietnam until he used all his ammunition. He retrieved two machine guns from a crashed helicopter and continued firing until his weapon was damaged and he was injured. Birdwell ran through enemy fire to retrieve more ammunition for his troops from other damaged vehicles. Birdwell received his first Silver Star for his heroism in battle on January 31, 1968.

Birdwell risked his life again on July 4, 1968, to rescue more American troops, some of them wounded, who were stranded in a battle zone in an enemy-occupied village. He exposed himself to heavy enemy fire while loading all the wounded and evacuating them to safety. He then went back into the village to rescue more Americans, for which he was awarded his second Silver Star for bravery.

Birdwell returned to the United States in December 1968, attended Northeastern State University and then the University of Oklahoma School of Law. He graduated in 1976 and began his law practice. He opened his own firm and concentrated on Energy, Natural Resources and Indian Law.

He was a member of the Judicial Appeals Tribunal (Supreme Court) of the Cherokee Nation from 1987 to 1999, serving as its chief justice from 1995 to 1996 and 1998 to 1999. The Tribunal is responsible for resolving all disputes arising within the Cherokee Nation. He helped lay the foundation of the Cherokee tribe’s modern court system. In 1997, Birdwell co-authored A Hundred Miles of Bad Road, an autobiographical Vietnam war story written by a "tanker" about his tour of duty before and after the Tet Offensive.

As of 2022, he is still a practicing attorney in Oklahoma City. He and his wife have been married for 53 years and have two children and two grandchildren.

Dwight W. Birdwell was born in Amarillo Texas on January 19, 1948. He was a citizen of the Cherokee Nation and grew up in the predominantly Cherokee Indian community of Bell, Oklahoma. He attended Bell Grade School and graduated from Stilwell High School in 1966 before entering the Army on May 24, 1966.

Birdwell was assigned to Troop C, the first American ground unit to respond to the attack on the Tan Son Nhut Air Base which was under attack during the Tet Offensive on January 31, 1967. Birdwell's tank commander was seriously wounded so Birdwell took command and continued firing on the attacking People’s Army of Vietnam until he used all his ammunition. He retrieved two machine guns from a crashed helicopter and continued firing until his weapon was damaged and he was injured. Birdwell ran through enemy fire to retrieve more ammunition for his troops from other damaged vehicles. Birdwell received his first Silver Star for his heroism in battle on January 31, 1968.

Birdwell risked his life again on July 4, 1968, to rescue more American troops, some of them wounded, who were stranded in a battle zone in an enemy-occupied village. He exposed himself to heavy enemy fire while loading all the wounded and evacuating them to safety. He then went back into the village to rescue more Americans, for which he was awarded his second Silver Star for bravery.

Birdwell returned to the United States in December 1968, attended Northeastern State University and then the University of Oklahoma School of Law. He graduated in 1976 and began his law practice. He opened his own firm and concentrated on Energy, Natural Resources and Indian Law.

He was a member of the Judicial Appeals Tribunal (Supreme Court) of the Cherokee Nation from 1987 to 1999, serving as its chief justice from 1995 to 1996 and 1998 to 1999. The Tribunal is responsible for resolving all disputes arising within the Cherokee Nation. He helped lay the foundation of the Cherokee tribe’s modern court system. In 1997, Birdwell co-authored A Hundred Miles of Bad Road, an autobiographical Vietnam war story written by a "tanker" about his tour of duty before and after the Tet Offensive.

As of 2022, he is still a practicing attorney in Oklahoma City. He and his wife have been married for 53 years and have two children and two grandchildren.

The sound of bullets popping through the air and piercing the water haunts Charles Norman Shay to this day. He doesn’t remember how many wounded men he pulled from the water that day he landed on Omaha Beach, he does remember the tide rising fast, the blood red ocean and the machine gun rounds streaming past him. The 19-year-old Penobscot from Indian Island, Maine was an Army medic in the 16th Infantry Regiment, he was one of three combat regiments of the 1st Infantry Division that led the D-Day assault in Normandy, France.

Charles Norman Shay was born on June 27, 1924, Shay lived on the Penobscot Indian Reservation in Maine. He later moved to Boston, Massachusetts with his parents, they worked at the Naval shipyard. In 1943, Shay was drafted into the Army and assigned to combat medic duty with the 1st Infantry Division. He completed basic training at Fort Pickett in Virginia and surgical school in Indiana, where he trained as a surgical technician. In 1943, he boarded the Queen Elizabeth in New York and sailed across the ocean to England. Shay shared the trip took about five to six days on the ship. Once he got to England, he began training for the invasion on Normandy, France. The training consisted of training on ships, landing on smaller landing crafts, digging foxholes, and eating MREs. Shay shared, the evening before the invasion, he had a surprise visit from a fellow Penobscot, Melvin Neptune. He knew Neptune from his home reservation, he thought it destiny that he was aboard the same transport ship. They shared stories of home and despite being in combat, Neptune didn’t share combat experience or offer advice. However, Shay knew, “all hell was about to break loose on me”.

On June 6, 1944, at about 6:00 a.m., Shay stormed the beach at Normandy. Under heavy German fire, he shared that it seemed impossible to get to the beach, but they needed to debark the ship immediately or get blown up. His main concern was survival, to get to the beach and treat the wounded men. When he got to the beach he looked back and noticed many wounded men floundering in the water. He also noticed the tide rising fast and the sea red with blood, he knew that if he didn’t act fast, many more men would die. Armed with only his two satchels of medical supplies he pulled the living up on the beach. Shay shared, “I am a great believer in a spiritual way of life. My mother’s prayers must have guided me.” Shay went on to participate in the Battle of Aachen, the Battle Hurtgen Forest and the Battle of the Bulge. On March 25, 1945, after crossing the Rhine on the bridge at Remagen he was captured by the Germans. A month later on April 18, he was repatriated and taken behind American lines. He was then taken to France and returned to Boston. For two months, Shay’s mother thought Charles had perished during the war. He said he would never forget her expression when she opened the door and saw him standing there.

Charles Shay received the Silver Star for his service and actions on June 6. Despite being a decorated Penobscot veteran, jobs were scarce on the reservations. Shay reenlisted in the Army in 1946 and served in Austria where he met his wife, Lilly. He returned to combat in Korea and was awarded the Bronze Star with two Oak Leaf clusters for valor for saving lives. In 1952, he joined the Air Force Reserve, before retiring as a master sergeant in 1964. Then he worked in Vienna for the International Atomic Energy Commission and later for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, before finally returning home to Indian Island in 2003. Shay was also awarded the French Legion dʻHonneur for his heroic efforts in the Liberation of France and his connection to the French nobility.  

Roy O. Hawthorne was born in 1926 in Ganado, Arizona. His mother, Desbah was Navajo and his father Orville was white. His parents sold Navajo arts and crafts at the trading post on the Navajo reservation, and he grew up speaking English and Navajo. Mr. Hawthorne’s childhood dream was to go into the military. He enlisted in the Marine Corp in June 1943 at 17 years old before completing high school. Several of his brothers had already gone into the army, 3 of which were also Code Talkers. He wanted to enlist in the submarine service, because he was reading Jules Verne’s 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea; but the US government required all Navajo men go into the Marine Corps.

Mr. Hawthorne was assigned to Camp Pendleton Communication School in CA where he learned all aspects of communication. He was also cross training in general Marine duties and weapon use. After his training at Camp Pendleton, he was deployed to Guadalcanal and Okinawa.

In the oral history video resource below, Mr. Hawthorne recounted his role in intense fighting on Dakeshi Ridge in Okinawa where he called in a critical air strike using the Navajo Code. Mr. Hawthorne was discharged from the Marine Corps in 1946. He enlisted in the Army Airborne two years later where he became a paratrooper and rose to the rank of Staff Sergeant.

During his time in the Korean War, he experienced the Chinese Spring Offensive of 1951 before he was wounded in the leg by shrapnel from a mortar round. Doctors amputated Hawthorne’s right leg at the knee, and he spent one year at Walter Reed Hospital. But he persevered and continued working in Army communications for several more years after the Korean War.

Mr. Hawthorne used the GI Bill and received his Bachelors and Masters degrees. After being medically retired from the military, he completed seminary school, and became a Baptist pastor. He was a preacher for 48 years.

Mr. Hawthorne also served as a tribal police officer, and was highly involved in the Navajo Code Talkers Association. Mr. Hawthorne married his wife before he went to Korea and, as of 2015, they had been married for 53 years. They had 5 children – 4 sons and 1 daughter.

Roy O. Hawthorne was born in 1926 in Ganado, Arizona. His mother, Desbah was Navajo and his father Orville was white. His parents sold Navajo arts and crafts at the trading post on the Navajo reservation, and he grew up speaking English and Navajo. Mr. Hawthorne’s childhood dream was to go into the military. He enlisted in the Marine Corp in June 1943 at 17 years old before completing high school. Several of his brothers had already gone into the army, 3 of which were also Code Talkers. He wanted to enlist in the submarine service, because he was reading Jules Verne’s 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea; but the US government required all Navajo men go into the Marine Corps.

Mr. Hawthorne was assigned to Camp Pendleton Communication School in CA where he learned all aspects of communication. He was also cross training in general Marine duties and weapon use. After his training at Camp Pendleton, he was deployed to Guadalcanal and Okinawa.

In the oral history video resource below, Mr. Hawthorne recounted his role in intense fighting on Dakeshi Ridge in Okinawa where he called in a critical air strike using the Navajo Code. Mr. Hawthorne was discharged from the Marine Corps in 1946. He enlisted in the Army Airborne two years later where he became a paratrooper and rose to the rank of Staff Sergeant.

During his time in the Korean War, he experienced the Chinese Spring Offensive of 1951 before he was wounded in the leg by shrapnel from a mortar round. Doctors amputated Hawthorne’s right leg at the knee, and he spent one year at Walter Reed Hospital. But he persevered and continued working in Army communications for several more years after the Korean War.

Mr. Hawthorne used the GI Bill and received his Bachelors and Masters degrees. After being medically retired from the military, he completed seminary school, and became a Baptist pastor. He was a preacher for 48 years.

Mr. Hawthorne also served as a tribal police officer, and was highly involved in the Navajo Code Talkers Association. Mr. Hawthorne married his wife before he went to Korea and, as of 2015, they had been married for 53 years. They had 5 children – 4 sons and 1 daughter.

Merril L. Sandoval was born in a traditional Navajo hogan near Nageezi, New Mexico, on April 18, 1925. He mother’s clan is Naasht'e`zhi` Dine'e` (Zuni-Edgewater Clan) and his father’s is Tl'aaschi'I (The Red Cheek People Clan). His father, Julian, raised sheep on the family ranch and his mother, Helen, was a blanket weaver. Helen died when Merril was 6, leaving a newborn sister. Julian remarried and Merril grew up with many siblings and half-siblings. His great-grandfather was a Navajo medicine man who taught him traditional ways.

Merril and his older brother Samuel were attending high school at the Navajo Methodist Mission School at Farmington, New Mexico, in 1942. The recent attack on Pearl Harbor launched the nation into WWII and Marine recruiters were visiting the campus. Samuel, then 18, signed up. Although recruiters took soldiers as young as 16, Merril, nearly 17, was still too young without parental permission. When recruiters again visited campus in 1943, Merril was within weeks of his 18^th birthday. His father gave consent, telling Merril to bring his brother home.

Although both Samuel and Merril were Marine Code Talkers, they had no contact with each other while in the service. Early Navajo recruits like the Sandoval brothers at first had no idea that they were being recruited for their native language skills. Ironically, their mission school, like other Indian boarding schools, punished students for speaking their native language. It was the knowledge of this forbidden language that eventually helped the United States achieve victory in WWII.

Merril was at boot camp in San Diego, California, and then at Camp Pendleton at Oceanside for radio communication and rifle training. From there he went to Camp Tarawa in Hawaii to train for the Pacific campaign, serving in the 2^nd and 5^th Marine Divisions in the Hawaiian Islands, Saipan, Iwo Jima and the occupation of Japan. Merril’s job as a Code Talker was to receive, translate, and send coded messages behind the front line of battle. Because the Navajo language was not a written language and unknown to the enemy Japanese, it was impossible for them to decipher.

Merril was discharged from the Marines in 1946, finished high school and trained as a machinist at the Haskell Indian Vocational School in Lawrence, Kansas. He married Lorraine Humetewa Shingoitewa in 1951 and together they raised five children. Merril worked as a machinist before returning to the Navajo Reservation in 1963 where he joined the Navajo Tribal Police. After three years, he became an advocate for the Navajo Nation’s legal service. Retiring after 23 years, he continued to serve as a tribal advocate and tribal court interpreter. He also traveled extensively, speaking about his experiences and advocating for Indian people. 

Merrill received the Silver Congressional Medal of Honor along with other Navajo Code Talkers in 2001. He died in 2008.

Merril L. Sandoval was born in a traditional Navajo hogan near Nageezi, New Mexico, on April 18, 1925. He mother’s clan is Naasht'e`zhi` Dine'e` (Zuni-Edgewater Clan) and his father’s is Tl'aaschi'I (The Red Cheek People Clan). His father, Julian, raised sheep on the family ranch and his mother, Helen, was a blanket weaver. Helen died when Merril was 6, leaving a newborn sister. Julian remarried and Merril grew up with many siblings and half-siblings. His great-grandfather was a Navajo medicine man who taught him traditional ways.

Merril and his older brother Samuel were attending high school at the Navajo Methodist Mission School at Farmington, New Mexico, in 1942. The recent attack on Pearl Harbor launched the nation into WWII and Marine recruiters were visiting the campus. Samuel, then 18, signed up. Although recruiters took soldiers as young as 16, Merril, nearly 17, was still too young without parental permission. When recruiters again visited campus in 1943, Merril was within weeks of his 18^th birthday. His father gave consent, telling Merril to bring his brother home.

Although both Samuel and Merril were Marine Code Talkers, they had no contact with each other while in the service. Early Navajo recruits like the Sandoval brothers at first had no idea that they were being recruited for their native language skills. Ironically, their mission school, like other Indian boarding schools, punished students for speaking their native language. It was the knowledge of this forbidden language that eventually helped the United States achieve victory in WWII.

Merril was at boot camp in San Diego, California, and then at Camp Pendleton at Oceanside for radio communication and rifle training. From there he went to Camp Tarawa in Hawaii to train for the Pacific campaign, serving in the 2^nd and 5^th Marine Divisions in the Hawaiian Islands, Saipan, Iwo Jima and the occupation of Japan. Merril’s job as a Code Talker was to receive, translate, and send coded messages behind the front line of battle. Because the Navajo language was not a written language and unknown to the enemy Japanese, it was impossible for them to decipher.

Merril was discharged from the Marines in 1946, finished high school and trained as a machinist at the Haskell Indian Vocational School in Lawrence, Kansas. He married Lorraine Humetewa Shingoitewa in 1951 and together they raised five children. Merril worked as a machinist before returning to the Navajo Reservation in 1963 where he joined the Navajo Tribal Police. After three years, he became an advocate for the Navajo Nation’s legal service. Retiring after 23 years, he continued to serve as a tribal advocate and tribal court interpreter. He also traveled extensively, speaking about his experiences and advocating for Indian people. 

Merrill received the Silver Congressional Medal of Honor along with other Navajo Code Talkers in 2001. He died in 2008.

Cpl. John Kinsel Sr. served in the Marine Corps as a Code talker from 1942-1946 with the 9th Marine Regiment, 3rd Marine Division. Kinsel was born in 1921 on a reservation near Lukachukai, Arizona. His father died when he was an infant. His mother remarried and bore several other children, one of whom died when Kinsel was six. He recalls at the age of 4-5 of being “shoveled” around from many family members' households where he would do chores like chopping wood, herding sheep and carrying water. At times he enjoyed the many different families and has good memories of riding donkeys. However, this also made him feel discarded by his mother and step-father. He attended a day school where he was bullied. After not learning much from the day school, he then attended a boarding school where he recalls once again being bullied, along with strict rules, dress codes, and small rations of food. During his two years there, he did not learn English. Again, he moved schools where he was told that he had a wonderful singing voice. This is how he learned English. 

Once Pearl Harbor was attacked, Kinsel decided to join the armed forces, although he now recounts that because he was the oldest sibling, he should not have joined any armed forces. He reported to Camp Elliot after boot camp where he met Phillip Johnston, the director of the code talkers. Kinsel joined the “First Twenty-Nine” to further develop the Navajo code for military terms. He trained for eight months in New Zealand and describes nightly bombings from “Washing Machine Charlie” until a Black Widow Plane shot them down. While in Iwo Jima, Kinsel was injured while his unit was in the many tunnels and caves where the Japanese set off a series of explosions.

After healing from his injuries, Kinsel was on furlough for 30 days and he returned home. He describes the day he was reunited with his mom as one of the best in his life. His uncle did not recognize him. His return home was celebrated, and a medicine man held a ceremony thankful for his safe return.  Once he returned from the war, he did not want to talk about his experiences overseas. Kinsel then became an instructional aid at a school in Chinle where he had to walk over twenty miles a day to get there.

Born July 21, 1924 at Rehoboth Mission, Alfred K. Newman, Sr. grew up near Coolidge, New Mexico. His mother was a home keeper and rug weaver; his stepfather a silversmith. The oldest of 6 children, Alfred spent the 1930s with his parents living at the trading post, doing work for the trader, and selling the rugs to tourists who passed through the area. At an early age, Alfred attended a Hispanic school about a mile from his home, but because he was learning Spanish rather than English, he was removed from that school after about a year and a half. At about age eight, Alfred was sent on to the Rehoboth Mission Boarding School, which was a day’s travel by wagon from home. During his time at the boarding school, Alfred quickly learned that speaking Navajo was forbidden. Fortunately for Alfred, his English was at least good enough to understand and be understood, so he didn’t have to deal with the punishment that many other Navajo students did, like missing out on weekend activities and writing lines. Summers were spent herding sheep for the family on the reservation since his parents had moved back to the homestead.

At the age of 18, Alfred joined the Marine Corp after reading about their history and their pattern of being the first ones to the battles. He went on to boot camp in San Diego, on to Camp Elliott for rifle training and finally to Camp Pendleton for training to be a Code Talker. Once Alfred’s training was complete, he was assigned to the 1st Battalion, 21st Regiment, 3rd Division of the Marine Corp in the South Pacific. He was on Bougainville, Guam, Guadalcanal and Iwo Jima during this service, although never had the opportunity to actually use his code talker training. When the war ended, Alfred returned home. In the 1960s, Alfred relocated his family to Kirtland, New Mexico where he worked for the Utah International Navajo Mine for 25 years as first a laborer and then a supervisor for the drill and blast crew before his retirement. He died in Bloomfield, New Mexico on January 13, 2019, at the age of 94.

Born July 21, 1924 at Rehoboth Mission, Alfred K. Newman, Sr. grew up near Coolidge, New Mexico. His mother was a home keeper and rug weaver; his stepfather a silversmith. The oldest of 6 children, Alfred spent the 1930s with his parents living at the trading post, doing work for the trader, and selling the rugs to tourists who passed through the area. At an early age, Alfred attended a Hispanic school about a mile from his home, but because he was learning Spanish rather than English, he was removed from that school after about a year and a half. At about age eight, Alfred was sent on to the Rehoboth Mission Boarding School, which was a day’s travel by wagon from home. During his time at the boarding school, Alfred quickly learned that speaking Navajo was forbidden. Fortunately for Alfred, his English was at least good enough to understand and be understood, so he didn’t have to deal with the punishment that many other Navajo students did, like missing out on weekend activities and writing lines. Summers were spent herding sheep for the family on the reservation since his parents had moved back to the homestead.

At the age of 18, Alfred joined the Marine Corp after reading about their history and their pattern of being the first ones to the battles. He went on to boot camp in San Diego, on to Camp Elliott for rifle training and finally to Camp Pendleton for training to be a Code Talker. Once Alfred’s training was complete, he was assigned to the 1st Battalion, 21st Regiment, 3rd Division of the Marine Corp in the South Pacific. He was on Bougainville, Guam, Guadalcanal and Iwo Jima during this service, although never had the opportunity to actually use his code talker training. When the war ended, Alfred returned home. In the 1960s, Alfred relocated his family to Kirtland, New Mexico where he worked for the Utah International Navajo Mine for 25 years as first a laborer and then a supervisor for the drill and blast crew before his retirement. He died in Bloomfield, New Mexico on January 13, 2019, at the age of 94.